Kapitola 1
Andragogy – a science exploring management of education and counselling
Once you complete this chapter, you should be able to:
- Characterise learning and self-directed learning.
- Apply elements of self-directed learning to one’s own learning.
- Differentiate between the phenomena of self-teaching and teaching someone else as part of adult educational practice.
Key words: learning, self-directed learning, management of adult learning, heutagogy.
Prusáková (2008, p.19) labels the processes of adult education, training and counselling as subjects of exploration in andragogy. Therefore, in the most general sense, it could be said that life-long learning affects three areas: education, training and counselling. The subject of exploration in andragogy evolves around adult learning processes taking place anytime and anywhere throughout life, in various conditions and environments (personal, public and work-related life). Beneš (2014, p.56) described the subject of andragogy which, at the same time, could be described as management of processes undergoing scientific research. Table 1 illustrates the parts and mutual relationships in the multidimensional space of individuals’ life-long learning.
Table 1 Subject of Andragogy
Source: Adapted based on Beneš 2014, p. 56
Pavlov (2018, p.13–14) describes learning as the most generic notion applied by educational sciences. It bears a principal importance for the theory of education and counselling, since it forms part of all pertaining processes and discussions occurring in adulthood. When defining learning, it is always important to know the source (a learning theory) and the aspect upon which individual sciences are exploring the learning (philosophy, anthropology, psychology, pedagogy, andragogy, sociology and others). Learning theories explore individual types of learning (based on regulating mechanisms), styles of learning, strategies and technologies as well as other factors accompanying our learning process.
We are applying a definition which suits the andragogic viewpoint (Švec, 2002, p. 15): Self-learning[1] is a process facilitating developmental changes in knowledge, abilities, attitudes and other personal features of individuals reflected in subsequent alterations of the course and result of individual activities, performance, behaviour and the overall experience affected by the surrounding environment. In the light of this definition, we perceive adult learning as a life-long process (it applies to the entire human ontogenesis) with its typical characteristics (e.g.):
- learning is an active and creative life-long process;
- learning expands hereditary genetic dispositions with new possibilities;
- learning means adapting to new situations;
- learning means acquiring knowledge, skills and attitudes; and
- learning is accompanied by alterations in personal characteristics.
The above-mentioned characteristics imply their close relation to educational processes and training. The educational process (conscious, goal-oriented, typically organised facilitation and active acquisition of knowledge, skills, habits and attitudes, including ethical personal qualities) would not be possible without learning (in various forms). Learning process management comprises at least two dimensions – the individual (self-teaching, self-directed learning) and the organisation (“teaching someone else“, directed by others). Table 2 contains selected key terms applied in andragogy when talking about learning processes. Both columns represent two poles of possible (overlapping) approaches to learning (starting with the one dependent on external assistance and managed from outside, all the way to an autonomous, self-directed one). Both approaches require that learners exert a certain degree of self-regulation (self-directing) of one’s behaviour and actions, which effectively limits the efficiency of the process and results of their learning.
Table 2 Multidimensional nature of processes involved in teaching someone else and self-teaching
[1]Self-learning is perceived in line with the definition of Švec (2002, p. 37): self-directed learning – more or less conscious and intentional self-learning without somebody else’s assistance or intervention, with a possibility of applying various learning tools and controlling and regulating the process independently via one’s own feedback (a self-learner is also one’s own “teacher“).
When we have a closer look into the andragogic theories, we encounter a notion of regulation, self-directing in adult learning, especially in the work of M. Knowles who belongs among the pioneers of ideas of self-directed or self-regulated learning in andragogy. Occupational education and development are placed in a special socio-economic context of this notion relevant to the conditions existing within companies. M. Knowles considers andragogy an art and assistance to adults in their learning. Self-directed person and self-directed learning occupy a principal position in his outline of non-formal education. Such a person is typically independent, autonomous and able to make decisions. Accepting the idea of self-directing forms two dimensions in management of life-long learning – regulated learning (managed) ʺtop down approach/managed from outside“ and self-regulated learning (managed) ʺfrom inside“ by the subjects themselves. This way, we are shifting focus from clarification of notions inherent to occupational education, development and adult learning to the topic of managing these processes. Learning is viewed as a notion – a scientific category which serves not only terminologically as an umbrella term “unifying“ all the lower rank notions (education, training, development, self-development and management), thus acting as their common denominator. Here, we would like to point out the fact that in everyday practice, we also encounter terms such as tutoring (of missed lessons or lessons not learned) and re-learning or unlearning (of ill-mastered, unwanted habits, knowledge and skills).
Beneš (2014, p. 76–86) approaches the concept of self-directed learning in a critical, but constructive manner. He depicts its bottlenecks such as: the need for well-structured regulation of learning, building skills needed for self-directed learning (metacognitive skills allowing individuals to regulate and structure one’s own learning, knowing how to plan, evaluate and correct learning, as well as to self-regulate motifs, feelings, actions and make use of material and social sources in order to reach one’s goals). According to Beneš, this is where andragogy (counselling and diagnostics) may support and drive adult learners to enhance all the above-mentioned processes. It points out a discrepancy concerning the trend of deinstitutionalization of learning processes creating the need for their institutionalisation. This seems to be a logical phenomenon since the skills required for self-regulated learning need to be acquired in a regulated manner.
Adult learning is a multidimensional field permeating through many scientific fields and branches of social practice. The last decades clearly prove that life-long learning is significant and irreplaceable in people’s lives, work environment and the entire society and economics. Not only do the international and national analyses, programme and strategic documents refer to the life-long learning concept, but it has also become a subject of scientific research covering a whole range of questions invoked by this topic. Currently, life-long learning is becoming an issue of public interest, because educated citizens form prerequisites for social and economic development. That is the reason why support of life-long education should exist as a comprehensive system comprising opportunities for formal, informal and non-formal life-long learning processes. It is very unlikely that supply and demand – a free market – would help to resolve all the issues concerning support of life-long learning for all target groups. It is indeed necessary for all relevant state bodies to take full responsibility for performance of their strategic, systemic and coordinating role.
The role of human sciences is to describe, comprehend, explain and offer a solution serving as support of one’s life-long learning process. Educational sciences of the past decades are strongly influenced by ideas and impact of neoliberalism, which, along with governmentality, affected our comprehension of life-long learning and education in many ways. Kopecký (2013, p. 49-56) describes the phenomena of complex globalisation driven by neoliberalism and its requirements to minimise the role of state and maximise the function of an unregulated market. Nowadays, education is regarded as a tradeable commodity and application of theories on human capital leads us to view education as a tool facilitating economic efficiency. As a result, adults engaged in education are regarded as customers and adult education is viewed as a type of economic activity. Consequently, we no longer tend to discuss the significance of adult education as a social and cultural phenomenon. According to Kosová (2005, p. 14), putting more emphasis on education forms a positive challenge as well as a certain danger for transforming countries approaching the liberalisation process with a certain delay. Economic context depicting even humans as capital provides a reductionist viewpoint in relation to education. It focuses on professional success and career, competitive self-promotion, specialisation, IT skills, and also consumption. The resulting effect takes the form of an individual reduced to certain partiality, thus an anthropologically-balanced understanding of the education cannot be subordinated to such tendencies.
Let us examine why it is necessary to explore issues concerning human learning processes? Each and every adult prefers to learn without someone else controlling or directing them; they wish to be independent (not like at school, when they were dependent on the help of a teacher). However, that is not always possible, since life brings about various situations requiring individuals to come up with innovative and intense learning processes, but also tutoring or relearning of expertise that they already acquired for various reasons in order to complement what they are missing and what they urgently need. It also encompasses new requirements connected with changing times, society and work environment. It would be ideal if one managed to handle these processes on their own, without anybody else’s assistance and support. Nevertheless, learning is a very dynamic process often hindered by barriers, embedded experience and learning procedures which require rebuilding, optimisation and completion. At this point, someone from outside, who is ready to help, steps in to coordinate the learning processes. All the above prompted us to present a concept of learning process coordination having different characteristics for minors than for adults.
By definition, we generally refer to coordination of processes (activities) performed in a certain time, environment and conditions, with participation of stakeholders – people (elements of the system). To direct means to regulate, make decisions about effects on the subject of directing (an organisation or an individual becomes a directed subject). Adult learning management[1] is an interdisciplinary scientific and theoretical concept exploring contexts, models, processes, peculiarities and modes leading to management (directing) of life-long learning support (educational potential) of adults (individuals, working groups, entire organisations or companies) in various social and economic conditions and environments. Help and support in the area of ever-expanding life-long educational potential of adults and their educators focuses on research and application of andragogic tools of intervention (education, self-education, training, self-instruction, consulting and others).
Management of adult learning may be applied to:
- a study field at university (designed for future managers of education);
- a sphere of practical human activities (the broadest concept – as management, e.g. of the national system of education and training of citizens, all the way to the narrower approach – management of learning processes in subjects of ongoing training and education – individuals and organisations);
- a theoretical field and scientific research; and
- staff (managers) in organisations responsible for employees’ education (growth).
In this way, the theory and practice of adult learning management acquires interdisciplinary intersections with management and its other theoretical and practical fields as described in Scheme 1. Moreover, other scientific areas such as psychology, sociology and also economics, marketing, law, educational politics and others form these interdisciplinary intersections, too.
Scheme 1 Interdisciplinary intersections in adult learning management
[1] From a terminological viewpoint, we replaced the much used notion of educational management (management of education) with learning management (learning), which is broader and encompasses other training (developmental) activities than just educational ones.
Source: Pavlov – Skúpa 2020, p. 306
A closer look into the specialised andragogic contents on adult learning management reveals several layers – theoretical concepts (starting with the narrowest all the way to the broadest ones):
- management as an independent andro didactic process – management of a learning process (teaching) carried out by an educator and an adult – learning taking place in any kind of environment under any conditions;
- management, as regulation of corporate human resource requirements, performed under specific conditions of an organisation;
- management as coordination of human resources[1], a part of complex human resource theories comprising employees’ training and growth as one of its functions (stages); and
- adult learning management as development of one’s potential for learning (docility).
The last and the broadest management concept contains one important element – self-directing in learning. Beneš (2003, p. 99–104) defines the concept of self-directed adult learning by stating that individuals should be able to handle their issues via planned self-directed learning for which they bear the responsibility. “Learners must be able to identify their own needs, implement and evaluate one’s own learning processes, decide which parts they wish to learn themselves and which ones they prefer to learn in an organised manner while maintaining concentration and motivation. This process requires knowledge of various learning strategies, media, etc. Self-learning increases demands on personal qualities and autodidactic skills.“ Švec et al. (2002, p. 48-53) defines the notion of self-directed adult learning process via specific abilities being their typical manifestations (as opposed to those of minors):
- divergent thinking;
- objective self-reflection and open acceptance of feedback concerning one’s performance;
- ability to diagnose educational needs;
- ability to formulate educational objectives so that they fit the description of desirable behavioural outcomes;
- ability to identify human and material resources needed for fulfilment of educational objectives;
- ability to outline a strategic plan for efficient use of resources;
- ability to systemically fulfil the educational plan, which requires convergent thinking; and
- ability to check whether educational objectives were fulfilled and to evaluate their practical implementation.
Prusáková – Schubert (2013, p. 22–31) emphasises that even adult didactics, who so far were significantly influenced by human resource management and development, lack a psychosocial aspect and an andragogical perspective. The authors underline the growing significance of “informalisation“ in adult learning processes, which pushes traditional providers of education aside (the process may be backed up by attempts to cater to increased demand for education at the lowest possible costs). The authors find “autodidactic turnover“ inspiring since it leads to paradigmatic change from normative didactics and autodidacticism to counselling didactics. The essence being the fact that the provider of education, (since organised education represents a rather special status of individual adult learning) no longer stands in the centre, instead, it is the individual’s systemic-constructivist viewpoint of learning. Normative-didactic procedures, based on a conceptual approach to teaching and an over-estimation of its irreplaceability and effects are being pushed aside by informal and autodidactic concepts. Adults are learning whatever they will (or what is in their capacity) and the basis for each type of learning dwells in implicit functionality used for decision-making about the value or variability of learning. Such an approach requires adults to exhibit a substantial degree of self-regulation, which is not easy to master, and immediate results cannot be expected, since it requires learning (even in formal education facilitated by learning in educational institutions).
The fundamental areas of interest (subject) in adult learning management seek answers to questions like: Why is it possible to regulate adult learning processes from outside? Since adults are malleable throughout their lives, how is the core subject of directing in learning being formulated? Learning capacity – docility. Who can be directed in their learning process? The answer is – any single individual in any phase of life and in any environment – private, public as well as work-related. What is the objective of such a direction of learning? Enhancing docility potential in order to gain a competitive edge on the labour market, and subsequently improving one’s quality of life. What kind of regulation strategies and methods can be applied? Any method allowing for mobilisation of a person’s docility potential. How to make use of resources, financial and material means to efficiently direct the learning process? Proficiently, i.e. effectively and purposefully. As we have already indicated, learning management is a process providing individuals learning with goal-oriented directing and support from outside provoking desirable alterations mediated by means of suitable devices to reach planned goals. Being subjects to such impact, individuals transform under the influence of external management (they respond with feedback); they themselves become active subjects of the transformation (objects become subjects), thus they autoregulate their behaviour (in our case it is the learning process). Now, we are approaching a principal question concerning the uniqueness and speciality of life-long adult learning management. In our opinion, it is the docility – potential for learning which is closely linked to the concept of self-regulation (self-directing) in learning (see Chapter 2).
Adult learning management (andragogic management) is a prospective field for scientific research and application of andragogic science. Clarifying the terminological baselines, contextualising and systematising relevant notions and components form an inherent part of developing adult learning process management under various conditions and in diverse environments (e.g. work or free time). Notions like professional education, learning or development can be interpreted differently in specialised management contexts or professional andragogic literature that may lead to confusing the form (method), which is the education with the objective, which is the employee’s growth (Horváthová Suleimanová – Wojčák – Poláková 2019, p. 10–11). Armstrong (2007, p. 470) chooses not to focus solely on improved work performance at the current workplace, instead, he characterizes growth as a developmental process allowing individuals to progress from their current state of knowledge and abilities to a more advanced level requiring a higher degree of skills, expertise and abilities. It takes the form of an educational activity creating grounds for broader, more responsible and more demanding work-related assignments. Veteška (In Veteška et al. 2009, p. 20) and Veteška et al. (2013, p. 51–55) break down education in companies (corporate) into: so-called training (or rather instructional courses, educational events and similar courses) enhancing specific skills needed for qualified performance of a job or post while helping to remove deficits in the level of knowledge and skills and secondly, to development activities oriented on future performance needs and job performance (individual employees’ growth and directing of their career). Tureckiová (2014, p. 6) states that educational management is utilised for the educational paradigm capturing adult learning regulation processes (management). Learning management concepts detailed mainly in further professional (specialised) education, adult didactics and education in management skills forms part of the life-long education (learning) agenda. The last listed notion of adult educational management combines organisational management, i.e. management in general and basic classification and contents of managerial functions, with people management (or more precisely stewardship ) and directing of oneself within self-development processes. Later, Tureckiová (In Trojan et al. 2016, p. 19–20) defines the general objective of employees’ education and growth (not only in educational organisations) through desirable changes in competencies and work environment, but also formation of conditions for self-actualisation or employees’ personal and professional growth. Education is regarded as a basic means in the growth process, since it constantly and directly shapes not only knowledge and skills, but also one’s nature and culture, aspirations and results. This standpoint is acceptable; it depicts education as the most important, but not the only piece in an employee’s development process puzzle, with which we agree. Veteška (2016, p. 249–251) characterizes adult educational management as management of educational processes or incorporation of general management principles into specific conditions of educational institutions. We would like to note that educational organisations are probably not the only ones to provide growth opportunities for employees; there are surely other entities (companies, corporations, enterprises or organisations). Furthermore, Veteška justifiably points out the close relation between adult learning management and marketing (of educational institutions and education).
The unambiguity of the above-mentioned approaches dwells in comprehension of professional education and development (depending on employees’ current and prospective needs) expected by the employer from the given post. This concept fails to correlate with our perspective since it interchanges the (educational) tool for the objective (development). A key question being: what is it that we manage in the area of employees’ education and development? The abovementioned implies that notions like education and development are taken for synonyms only in a very broad sense of the words – as acquisition of higher quality personal characteristics, knowledge and skills. A theoretical approach to these notions requires their unambiguous description and rooting in an andragogic context. The notion of education (especially formal education) is usually linked to expectations, acquisition, mastering of knowledge, skills and attitudes, while consequently obtaining necessary or increased qualification or proficiency (since it is its natural output). However, performance of one’s profession does not mean acquisition, expansion, improved qualification or general development of other personal qualities (motivation, flexibility, preparedness to take over responsibility or competencies, building one’s potential for learning, etc.) representing their potential for employment, competitiveness, work performance and satisfaction at work. We should only mention education/qualification if it is directly related to the process/result attainable by formal and informal education or self-education. Hroník (2011, p. 31) differentiates between development – as a process oriented on attainment of desirable change via learning – and education as one of its ways (usually organised and institutionalised). In its essence, learning encompasses both development and education, but in a specific sense. We endorse his views, and Scheme 2 describes this connotation in the broadest possible sense of the human learning process found in all life-long learning contexts. Development covers all positive, progressive activities and changes resulting in improved human potential (as opposed to stagnation and regression), while education provides the narrowest connotation covering only one (although fundamental) human development tool.
[1] According to Vodák – Kucharčíková (2011 p. 41), human resource management in its essence, is a business-oriented philosophy applied on personnel management with the aim of gaining a competitive edge.
Questions and assignments:
- Characterise learning.
- Characterise adult learning management.
- Clarify the thought “An adult is learning to learn“.
- Define characteristics of learning and describe when learning is an adaptation to new situations.
- Describe the difference between self-teaching and teaching.
- Apply characteristics of self-directed teaching on one’s own learning. What will the process look like? State examples.
- Describe the differences between tutoring, relearning and unlearning; state suitable examples connected to adulthood.
- Imagine you are working as an educational manager. What would be the fields in which you could work and what types of jobs would you take up?
- Provide suggestions on how you could regulate adult learning processes from outside.
- How could conditions and the environment of adult learning positively or negatively affect the learning process?
