Andragogic counselling – a means for developing docility

A closer look at andragogic theoretical thinking in Slovakia shows obvious several ways of striving for a definition and an outline of andragogic counselling that indicate its potential. Resources introduced below, opinions of andragogic theoreticians, give us a quite clear though so far vaguely delineated subject of andragogic counselling, its status and tasks (Čečetka 1943, p.100–101; Machalová 2008, p.65; Livečka a Skalka 1983, p.121–123; Ďurič – Hotár – Pajtinka eds. 2000, p.338; Švec 2000, p.115; Palán 2002, p.159; Kliment 2003; Hloušková in Rabušicová a Rabušic 2008, p.290–291; Prusáková 2005, p.32; Švec 2008, p.61–62; Machalová 2008, p.67; Pirohová 2008, p.111; Porubská – Határ 2009; Šírová 2010, p. 36; Oravcová 2013, p.61-72; Machalová 2017; Mayer 2017, p.15). Their opinions illustrate quite diverse perceptions of the issue and their comprehension of andragogic counselling reaching beyond the borders of Slovakia. We assume that it is so since up until now a fundamental question has not been answered properly: What is the purpose of andragogic counselling?

Human educability and trainability are comprehended in terms of human docility. Docility is the ability (level of human potential) to learn in the broadest possible sense of the word. It is a habitual human quality, a disposition for learning about personal development. Each single individual is equipped with a certain degree of ability to learn. Docility (lat. docilitas – learning how to be a man, but also willingness to learn, also capable of learning) is an ambiguous notion, having several equivalents; from a semantic viewpoint it is close to ancient Greek paideia in its understanding as “caring for soul” Švec (2008, p.89) defines the following key terms: educability, trainability and the ability to learn – docility. Hartl (1999, p.163) equates docility and capability to learn. According to his theory, elderly adults may learn equally well as younger ones. Even if their scores might be as high, it is because of declines in other abilities than the mental one. Capacity and speed play a key role in adult learning. Capacity depends on the ability to learn (docility), which is usually not affected physically, or by age; in fact, many adults maintain the same level into old age. Velocity (meaning the time needed for mastering knowledge) is affected by age as a result of physiological alterations accompanying ageing. Even preparedness and alertness to learning limits the willingness to accept it (several barriers in learning, such as mental and emotional factors as well as anxiety, uncertainty, fear and unwillingness to modify a value system or attitudes). According to Průcha (2005, p.25) “docility is the ability to learn“. Dvořáková and Šerák (2016, p.80) state that the necessary prerequisites for participation of adults in educational activities are their capability to learn, educability (docility) – the extent to which an individual can be changed by education. Průcha (2014, p.10) comprehends docility as the ability and capacity of individuals to learn. Furthermore, this author stresses that it is extraordinary that neither andragogic nor pedagogic theory are interested in the notion of docility, even though dispositions for learning vary with every single individual; as if it was presumed that everybody has equal disposition for learning and acquiring knowledge. Špatenková – Smékalová (2015, p.8-22) explain the docility of individuals based upon their active approach (former results and preparedness, openness to learning), mental dispositions (subject to dynamic changes in ontogenesis such as perception, attention, memory, creativity, etc.) and personal transformation (shaped by situational and life contexts and also self-reflection, self-evaluation, self-confidence and values). Docility originates from autoregulated mental processes of personality in the broadest sense as the ability to regulate one’s behaviour (including learning). Each and every one of us has a certain level of abilities enhancing autoregulation of self-learning defined by neurological dispositions, environmental conditions, qualification, but also suitable educational interventions.

Docility stands for the diagnosable human potential for learning or self-learning, which may be improved, developed, trained and supported by andragogic intervention (Pavlov 2018, p.55–56). A certain degree of human docility may also be regarded as an andragogic criterion of adulthood (disturbed, temporarily or permanently reduced docility – indocility may hinder adults from achieving their life goals). Nowadays, docility (as in educability) is appreciated as a key competence of individuals when they are seeking employment and life-long preparedness to adapt to new requirements and situations via further learning. It should be noted (Pavlov 2015), that educability is not comprehended in its narrow meaning related to new knowledge and skills, but also in relation to intentional self-training (values, character, morale) of individuals (the potential for educability and trainability). Docility as an andragogic phenomenon can be the subject of scientific research; moreover, it may also be practically supported in the following dimensions:

• To be able to – various level of potential (the complex of dispositions for learning, including life experience and results of school education);
• To want – diverse levels of motivation (preparedness, willingness to learn and to admit that there is a lot that isn’t known and that learning and accepting support may lead to improvement);
• To know – various strategies that help to maintain and develop educability from a life-long perspective.

Exploration of docility from andragogic viewpoint is significantly influenced by former experience of adults (results of learning processes, mastered learning strategies, etc.); individual’s complex mental disposition (inherent, acquired, manifested mental processes and qualities); personal setting (self-motivation, self-awareness, self-regulation, self-fulfilment, ideals and values) and external factors stimulating human learning (as a complex of stimuli, opportunities and life activities enhancing self-development). Autoregulation mechanisms lie in depth of docility processes. Adulthood will bring not only thorough improvement of externally-instigated learning accomplishments (e.g., to learn more, faster and more precisely at school) but also improvement of skills to fully exploit the potential for management of one’s own life-long learning (learning autoregulation). Adults acquire autoregulation abilities in one’s own learning not only via school instruction and learning but also through the broader learning environment. In this way, individuals gradually gain full control and responsibility for mastering autoregulation in their own learning. School education facilitates students’ preparedness (hetero-education) for taking over the responsibility for one’s own learning (auto-education) and consequently also a competency enabling life-long learning. The varied disposition of school graduates for such competency has been recently becoming a crucial challenge for schools and teachers in seeking strategies that equip students with the skills required to gain autoregulation, thus enhancing their docility potential in adulthood. For example, Průcha (2020, p.185–186) emphasises the great significance of autoregulation in adult learning, especially in its distance and combined forms.

Zelina (2017, p.237) ranks the theory of autoregulation of personality formation among personal, spiritual and neo humanist-cognitive personal theories. Furthermore, referencing other authors, he points out the diverse features of autoregulation (adjusted according to Zelina 2017, p. 225–226):

• it leads to modification of one’s presented subjective status and suggests activities necessary for reaching or alternating one’s objectives;
• a process in which the system (individual) regulates (based on positive and negative feedback) oneself with the aim of achieving specific objectives;
• the systematic process of human behaviour adapting and engaging one’s human capacities in activities that allow reaching objectives and expected results;
• individuals remove discrepancies (real and ideal ME / real and possible ME) between actual behaviour and objectives;
• management and coordination of oneself while generating high level (free and independent choice of activities) or low level (activity resulting only from external pressure) of autoregulation;
• conscious or unconscious self-management, regulation of an individual’s body status typically oriented on optimisation of one’s status quo (focusing on biological, mental and social well being).

According to Zibrínyiová (2014, p.54) self-regulation^[1] may be comprehended as “personal characteristics of an individual that remain unchanged and may acquire various values such as an ego energy model changing its capacity on a life continuum (may be exhausted or raised) while the individual remains trainable, focused on a certain objective.” Lovaš (2011, p.7-13) places “self-regulation into close relation with self-control. Understanding both these above-mentioned fields can be explained via two approaches: orientation on achievement of objectives (selection of objective, cognition of the objective, maintaining one’s direction, alternation of the direction and priorities, achievement of the objective) as well as the individuals’ ability to modify their behaviour, and thus alternate it according to certain requirements (orientation of standards, monitoring, self-regulatory power and motivation)”. Self-regulation is a notion comprising conscious and unconscious objective-oriented processes, while self-control tackles all conscious efforts to change one’s behaviour, suppress impulses and resist temptation. In our opinion, self-control plays a significant role in adult self-learning processes (along with correct nutrition, a healthy lifestyle, elimination of various forms of dependence, etc.).   

Čáp and Mareš (2007, p.506) characterises autoregulation in learning (adjusted) as follows: a learning individual becomes an active stakeholder in the learning process itself in terms of activities, motivation and metacognition. Thus, the individual is striving to achieve certain objectives (mastering knowledge, skills, social status, recognition, etc.), initiates and regulates one’s own endeavour, and applies specific learning strategies regarding the context in which learning took place. It is a process, in which individuals use self-regulation to transform their mental abilities into skills needed for learning.

Research in the area of learning autoregulation (Čáp – Mareš 2007) in occupational learning is in two different areas: autoregulation of learning as a personality trait (as a permanent attribute, human potential, which also serves as predictor of future behaviour) and learning autoregulation as a situational phenomenon (i.e., one’s temporary status, which is typically interrelated with a situational context). Mareš (In Sak et al. 2007, p.213–222) further differentiates between two approaches as understood by autoregulation of the human learning process:

1. Autoregulation as self-direction with three dimensions:

• sociological – learners manage tasks independently of the educator = learners’ self- management;
• andragogic – learners teach themselves (self-teaching);
• psychological – learners’ personal factors (mental needs, critical thinking, responsibility and others).

2. Autoregulation as self-regulation finds its roots in cognitive psychology, the psychology of motivation, social psychology, the psychology of personality and learning. Autoregulation in learning is defined as such, depending on its level, when the learner becomes an active stakeholder in one’s own learning process considering the activity, motivation and metacognition. Meanwhile, learners strive to achieve certain objectives (knowledge, skills, social recognition, practical validation) and they initiate and coordinate one’s own knowledge-based route by employing specific learning strategies to the context in which it takes place. Self-regulated learning is a specific individual learning activity used to coordinate one’s educational activities. Autoregulated learning contains three components:

• regulation of specific ways for processing knowledge, selection of cognitive strategies and styles of learning with their dominant position;
• regulation of learning processes (i.e., utilisation of metacognitive knowledge and skills for self-regulation of one’s learning);
• regulation of individuals’ “me”, outlining one’s own objectives and selection of suitable means.

Hartl (1999, p.212–213) refers to Though (1983) while introducing key elements of self-regulated learning defined by the ability to: stipulate objectives, the plan and its implementation and evaluation; choose a suitable learning plan and strategy; exercise learning in an environment which is suitable for the required activities; be realistic in stipulating and outlining a learning schedule; know how to gain knowledge and skills from the most suitable resources; know how to reveal personal and situational obstacles in learning and deal with them; and be able to revive motivation whenever it declines. Differences in pedagogical (in case of minors) and andragogic (in case of adults) comprehension of learning autoregulation is reflected in:

1. prerequisites (e.g., adults do not lose potential for learning, to the contrary, it actually multiplies; likewise the ability of internal motivation for learning improve as well as regulation of positive emotions from learning; adults are aware of new dimensions and occasions for self-control as well as self-evaluation, personal proficiency and self-awareness; they grasp the significance of autoregulation in learning as a strategy reflecting one’s life journey and professional career).
2. conditions (e.g., adults choose, optimise and transform the environment for their own learning, better manage failures in learning, make good use of strategies for joint learning and the same applies to their potential of compatibility of externally-coordinated learning (education) and auto regulated learning, self-learning (self-education),
3. interventions of support (e.g., adults understand that even externally-provided strategies supporting autoregulation will help them learn how to learn).

Grác (2019) discusses the original concept of autodidacticism (self-learning – individual mastering of knowledge outside the normal classes) as a performance-based and relation-based process among individuals. His concept of autodidacts reveals internal determinants of self-learning processes which may be applied even in the environment of adult learning. A principal question for andragogy as an educational science is how to comprehend learning autoregulation (as a complex and difficult human mental process) so that it does not substitute for the function of psychology, and how to find its own field of research and application. Ondrejkovič (2014, p.312) stipulates that “the main task of educational science (pedagogy and andragogy) is to teach individuals in the broadest possible sense to take responsibility for one’s own learning in their own hands, and thus pass the life exams”. In fact, it means to focus on ways in which learners can be taught not only certain content but also learning skills and how to apply them and how to independently proceed in learning without assistance from teachers or peers. The questions of theories, contents and research in autoregulation of learning processes should be left solely to the subject of psychology. In the light of aforementioned scientific grounds and approaches we formulate three andragogic dimensions in adult-learning autoregulation and their indicators, for which andragogy should develop suitable diagnostic, interventional and evaluation tools (Pavlov – Neupauer 2019, p.30-31). For instance:

1. Planning (as a subject of diagnosing andragogic docility)
2. capability to define and outline the necessary time for learning, monitoring, maintaining and modifying demands of learning tasks;
3. positive life and learning objectives, stipulating an hierarchy (closer, more distant, easy and more difficult) along with a plan for their achievement;
4. being aware of learning capabilities, internal motivation implied by value orientation, self-confidence in managing tasks and attribution;
5. Implementation (as a subject of intervening andragogic docility)
6. a learning space (physical and social) as part of optimal conditions for heteronomous and autonomous learning (suitable educational sources and elimination of disruptive elements, etc.);
7. the capability to monitor the course of educational activities and the efficacy of educational strategies; the adequacy of exerted efforts and the achieved stipulated objective as well as the capacity to complete an educational task; and if it is too demanding to reactivate one’s learning efforts;
8. Evaluation (as a subject of evaluating the andragogic effect of docility):
9. a capability to self-monitor learning results (comparison of the result with the objective of the learning);
10. changes in self-perception (cause of potential lack of success and finding success in educational strategies and experience, i.e. for controllable factors rather than those which are out of the individual’s control);
11. changes in capability to autoregulate one’s learning processes (in the form of new or more effective learning strategies and objectives);
12. control and evaluation of the learning processes and one’s own input (self-evaluation);
13. flexible adaptation to changing requirements and conditions within learning processes.

Each and every specialised activity is based on scientific, theoretical (and practical) approaches evolving under the influence of diverse philosophical, psychological, counselling and psychotherapeutic fields. Knowledge of these theoretical bases enables counsellors to better comprehend the purpose of counselling, its possibilities and mainly opportunities provided during specialised counselling activities for clients. Drapela – Hrabal et. al. (1995, p.15) classify counselling theories (schools) into four categories depending on the area of human expression upon which their counselling intervention is centred: psychodynamic – sphere ME (Freud, Adler); emotional – feelings (Rogers); cognitive – thinking; behavioural – human behaviour. A cross-section of two or more schools gives rise to several other schools such as cognitive-behavioural or multi-dimensional approaches. Authors Mydlíková – Gabura (2005) divide counselling approaches in social work into dynamic, behavioural and experiential. Lazarová (in Knotová et al.  2004, p.93–113) introduces in social pedagogics a division of personality theories and counselling strategies into a dynamic (psychodynamic) behavioural, humanistic, systemic approach and constructivism in counselling, eclectic counselling and integrating efforts. Šlosár et al. (2017) found all the below-mentioned theories of social work: cognitive-behavioural theories, ecological and eco-social theories, social-psychological and communication models, existential and humanistic theories. The relationship between counselling and andragogy is well-known because counselling theories (specialised disciplines) are being applied to specific conditions, the environment and the adult learning context (relations between general and specific). Such a perspective allows one to view adult learning problems from non-traditional and innovative views. It is advisable to determine what is general and utilised from broad counselling theories and what is specific and useful from counselling theories that are unique in adult education and training. Both parts guarantee mutual enrichment by new theoretical, research, and practical findings.

The study of vocational sources, research and experience coming from the practice supporting vocational employees’ development leads us to acceptance of eclectic^[2] approaches, applying those elements out of validated theories which may serve for specific needs of andragogic counselling. In the light of aforementioned designation of stages (phases) in the process of andragogic counselling takes place as part of some of above-mentioned theories or it has an eclectic nature. In relation to designation of andragogic counselling, several authors take process-related parts of these activities into consideration, in fact, they set out the contents outlined for counsellors’/andrologists’ to  follow when working with clients and modes that can possibly be applied. When describing counselling stages, several authors even include methodology which basically should serve as instruction.

Counsellors are constantly confronted with a question about which theoretical direction they should use in their everyday practice, what should they follow and what should serve as their inspiration? The choice is to incline towards and follow one acceptable and applicable approach, theory or to decide for a merger of diverse elements selected from various approaches and directions, even though they may be contradictory (an eclectic approach). None of the above-mentioned directions (established abroad) are deeply rooted in Slovakia, which is because of the fact that they penetrated in a very spontaneous manner, failing to create a scientific, institutional and application-based background. However, that does not mean that counsellors work without conscious reflection or that they apply counselling approaches without any theoretical basis or without a certain behavioural strategy and decision making. According to Mydlíková – Gabura (2005, p.3) an eclectic approach dominates in Slovak counselling practice, facilitating symbiosis by connecting or selectively applying various counselling approaches, methods and forms of work adapted to the nature of the problem or the type of client. Counsellors should be prepared to make use of effective elements from all the approaches in order to help the client as quickly and effectively as possible. Similarly, Brnula et al. (2015, p.23–24) claim that eclecticism is typical even for social work. They are referring to ideas of Laura Epstein (in Matoušek et al., 2001, p.199), who formulated a typology of eclectic models (applicable even in andragogic counselling):

• model of systemic integration – this is an integration with clear criteria for selection of knowledge or theories that the model will contain;
• pragmatic model – a model generating a set of knowledge and theories based on practical needs and counsellors’ experience;
• model of systematic selection – counsellors will choose the main model to be enriched by further ideas, while maintaining the consistency of the main model;
• model of random applications – counsellors collect expertise via random selection and subsequently apply it in their work if needed.

There are many arguments advocating for eclecticism, which Navrátil (2001) adjusted for social work that  may be applied to andragogic counselling:

• the client should be able to make use of all accessible expertise;
• empiric experiences acquired via practical application are valid and they should modify the theory;
• theories cover various levels and spheres so they may complement each other;
• many aspects of various theories are similar or identical;
• human existence is manyfold and it may be assumed that it should not be ascribed with one single theory.

The elements of various counselling approaches are either identical or very similar and it seems as though the eclectic approach suits best for counselling. It does not have to always be so and it always depends on the nature of needs and client’s situation, but also on the counsellor’s capabilities. Few of the proven theories can fully clarify the nature of clients’ problems in their complexity and ascribe them just one suitable procedure. Thus, it is more optimal to apply a combination of several approaches in a way that allows the counsellor to make “the right decision“. How to simplify this choice for counsellors regarding the nature of the clients’ problems, the level of the counsellor’s capabilities and the overall context of the “counselling situation“, remains a permanent challenge. In relation to occupational counselling concerning specialised eclecticism, Svobodová (2015, p.113–114) suggests creative integration of two or more methodological counselling approaches or concepts. The basis for theoretical eclecticism (higher level of universality) is formed by metatheories enabling wide integration of elements coming from diverse methodological concepts and counselling approaches into a holistic model. This is the way in which original hybrid counselling approaches are being formed and might be respected in counselling practice if they meet following criteria:

• they define their subject to a full extent, accept methodology and create an objectivised system of categories;
• they extend the subject into so far theoretically uncharted areas involving new contents and dynamic changes;
• they describe their subject in their complexity, continuity and quality while observing the client’s needs;
• they align the conceptual system based on scientific approaches to the system’s formation;
• they bear responsibility for a client who makes use of the counselling service.

The concept of andragogic counselling forms the basis when building an applied discipline that scientifically modifies justified general principles regarding a specific subject of its research – adult learning. Currently, this relation is typical for counselling and andragogy.  Considering the low scientific and theoretical progress and application possibilities, it is premature to define andragogic counselling as a borderline andragogic discipline since it only gradually building up its own nomenclature deriving from andragogic and counselling theory as well as other related sciences (psychology, sociology, etc.) Andragogic counselling is typically applied in a specific social field of theory and practice in adult education and self-education, training and self-training (their education and learning, development of learning potential and vocational career). Prusáková (2008, p.19) dealt with the question of types and forms of andragogic exposure and identified counselling as a type of andragogic influence (along with education and training). Andragogic counselling is a type of counselling serving a target group of adults and their learning in various contexts, situations, environments and life conditions.

The traditional approach to counselling in learning “dilutes” andragogy as part of assistance tools for adults in social, vocational and cultural environment as well as other sciences which make use of it. It is key to define the target group to which a learning individual belongs (employed, socially dependent, seniors, etc.). These could be, for instance, numerous, significant groups whose disadvantage or marginalisation needs to be tackled. However, there are still many other “common” working adults who live their lives in “trouble-free” conditions and environments who are also entitled to andragogic assistance and support to possibly improve the quality of their lives. The innovative approach has a new core – docility (learning potential), surrounded by unique and specific adults’ learning needs, satisfied and enhanced by counselling. It allows focus primarily on support of (potential) learning processes regarding the contexts of individuals’ life conditions. In other words, if an adult learns to develop docility (potential), then the conditions and context of their use comes as secondary (not negligible). The above-mentioned implies complementarity of both approaches (traditional and innovative) in which the second one is definitely of an andragogic nature since it concentrates on adult learning processes.

There are two viewpoints concerning andragogic counselling:

• In a more narrow understanding of counselling in adult learning (how to learn better, how to study effectively, how to use learning strategies and how to improve one’s docility potential).
• In the broader perspective it is a counselling application concerning adults’ problems (work-related or personal) that may be resolved by mastering necessary competencies, strategies and knowledge to help resolve their issues by learning.

Characteristics of andragogic counselling:

• It is interdisciplinary (on the cross-section of andragogy and counselling psychology) with interwoven transdisciplinary elements;
• It is based on a humanistic (personal-humanistic) paradigm oriented on human development potential as a learning individual (as well as the relation between counsellor and client);
• It is contextual since it approaches clients’ problems within the context of work and life;
• It is comprehensive as far as learning processes are concerned since they improve the entire human personality even though it resolves particular problems and the learning needs of adults it still affects their self-development;
• It is professional, meaning it is provided by qualified counsellors;
• It is scientifically validated, thus based on verified theoretical approaches, methods and techniques that help clients;
• It is multidimensional in terms of clients’ problems and needs (at work, in personal life) for those who are prepared to improve their learning capacity;
• It is non-discriminatory, in other words, it is directed to all adults regardless of age (in all stages of life – lifelong counselling), regardless of the difference in acquired qualifications, and their social-economic and cultural-ethnic background and other factors.

We believe that the subject (object) of andragogic counselling has two dimensions: material object – an adult person as a joint subject of interest coming from various scientific fields (e.g., anthropology, psychology, sociology, ethics and others) and a formal object – a viewpoint that allows  exploration of the material object which determines the range of competency (stimulation of learning processes, self-learning – docility concept). Beneš (2014, p.18) eloquently defines the role of andragogy (including counselling) as transformation of life problems of individuals and society into problems that can be solved by learning. This does not encompass all the problems since many can be resolved by delegating (economically, legally, by power, technologically, via medical approach) but learning for someone else is not possible. The role of andragogy and andragogic counselling in this sense is to seek methods and forms allowing and driving adult learning (educability).

Andragogic counselling is a type of counselling for adult learners. It focuses on objectives, tasks, functions, methods, forms, means, conditions, approaches, models, fields and stages of the counselling process, counsellors’ prerequisites (personal and vocational), as well as many other issues. The nature of andragogic science implies that it mainly explores management processes, regulations of learning, education and self-learning, (teaching, self-teaching, education, self-education, training, self-training) of adults. Exploring the psychological foundation of adults’ learning processes forms the subject of psychology while their stimulation and targeted improvement belongs to the field of andragogy. The cross-section between psychology and andragogy – meaning the learning process and its targeted instigation via counselling often requires highly individualised support taking in regard:

• mental (neurological) peculiarities (limits) typical for learning processes in certain stages of an adult persons’ life;
• the social context of adult life (working, private and public aspects);
• specific andragogic approaches and tools available to be used as an intervention driving learning processes (strengthening adults’ docility potential).

Lifelong counselling provided to adults who are either employed or unemployed and elderly individuals is grasped as an activity which enables them to evaluate and verify their current work-related status (role, conditions and contents), capabilities acquired at work and learning about life as well as a plan for further education and one’s work-related or life journey (e.g., leaving for a pension). Andragogic adult counselling becomes a part of a broadly defined lifelong andragogic effect on various target groups (employed, unemployed, disadvantaged, etc.) For the counselling process itself, it manages to find broad interdisciplinary inspiration. While generating models, approaches of andragogic assistance and adult support, it is crucial to unambiguously delineate the very essence of counselling and its purpose. Andragogy perceives the major contribution of counselling in the diagnostic process, support, interventions by means of a learning process and self-learning. The study of docility as a phenomenon and potential for adult learning established the grounds of the counselling process; and the support enabling development of this potential (capability) is a purpose distinguishing it from other forms of counselling services (psychological, social, etc.). One may be tempted to ask – what is the difference between andragogic counselling and other types of educational, personal, psychological and work-related counselling? Andragogic counselling is meant to give advice on how to improve one’s learning (self-learning), joint (team, collaborative) learning, as well as teaching of others (minors, children or adults).

Beneš (1997) defined tasks, to be tackled by andragogic counselling (counselling in education): 

• Institutionalisation of counselling, i.e., creating specific organisational units, specialised institutions which facilitate specialised counselling activities in this area on various levels. For instance, it may be a special department for educational counselling.
• Professionalisation of counselling, which means delineating standards for this vocation and standards for education necessary for performance of this job, i.e., counselling services in education should be performed by professionals qualified for these activities as full-time or part-time positions.
• Process-based counselling work,e., the course of activities, the quality of processes in counselling activities in certain problem-related areas with time continuity.

Education (self-education) is a process of “you” teaching yourself or self-learning as an adult that is more or less regulated or autonomous. Although counselling has no direct relation to education since it is not education as such (it is advice, consultation, regulation); on the other hand, education can be understood as “instruction” (for solving life or work-related situations, etc.) only in its broadest sense. Counselling may or may not be linked to education (forming one of its parts), however, the two will always be related. Education may serve as counselling in its broadest sense, since it is oriented on what, how and when adults should be educated and vice versa, each type of counselling provides either information, knowledge or experience, in other words, educational attributes. A specific cross-section can be achieved if counselling is provided before education, throughout its course and after its termination. Before education it can serve as diagnosis of learning potential and its better targeting; throughout education as its correction, fixing of mistakes through improvement, optimization of educational activities and after termination of education as evaluation of educational results.

Andragogic counselling tackles clients’ problems, manageable by learning while it may contain elements focusing more on their career development, level of performance and support within the organisation (organisational) or focusing on management, gathering of information about results of their work (standardisation of vocational competence, evaluation), provision of feedback on work quality and follow-up evaluation as well as remuneration (personal) or  focused more on non-formal and individual counselling in individuals’ self-development and support of independent career management via formal and non-formal education, informal learning, self-learning, provision of materials and information concerning self-development (related to one’s career).

^[1]In relation to self-regulation of adult behaviour, it is worth mentioning so-called executive functions, which may improve, and thus render self-regulation more efficient. They are relatively plastic, in other words, they may be shaped from childhood until late adulthood. Currently, ways for creating training programmes are a subject of discussion because they could strengthen cognitive executive human functions and thus enhance the level of self-regulation. These would be training sessions oriented on behavioural procedures or neurostimulation.

^[2] Eclecticism – a scientific or artistic formation, substituting lack of one’s own invention with inspiration coming from different examples and role models. However, it can still be inventional in its connection with various sources when it comes to integrating, selecting certain elements of individual directions or theories, with regard to the nature of the problem and type of client.